8. Convergent and Divergent Questions

Questioning skills help students develop critical thinking and regard reasoning as an active process. There are two types of questioning that foster two different types of thinking respectively. 

Converging questioning (also called closed questioning) fosters converging thinking. It involves recalling information, given material or previous experience, thus limiting responses or answers. When answering these questions, students do not necessarily need to analyze or reflect. Converging questions do not require student to state opinions or interpret either. Instead, students make inferences from previous experiences.

Examples of convergent questions:

§“Who are the characters of the book Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens?”

§  “What does DIGPA mean?”

Diverging questioning fosters diverging thinking. Answers to diverging questions are more open, and there is not “one correct answer”. To answer diverging questions, students not only need to recall, but also need to reflect, analyze and solve a problem. Therefore, diverging questions allow deeper thinking and exploration. 

Examples of convergent questions:

§  “What would have happened if Oliver Twist had never left Mr. Sowerberry´s house?”

§  “How has reflective teaching helped you improve your teaching skills?”

7. Classrooom Design: Changes Over The Years

Classroom design impacts the teaching and learning process greatly. The design must provide a sense of “belonging” and “security”. Otherwise, learning is less likely to take place –especially when students do not feel comfortable or secure in their own classroom. The room design has to meet students´ needs; for instance, the classroom should meet the needs of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners.

Classroom design has changed over the years. In the past, the design was more restricted and limited. Desks used to be secure to the floor, not allowing group work, or at least making it difficult. In addition, there were not many technological advances, and classrooms could not count with the resources we have now: computers, audio-visual aids, etc. Now, the design is much more flexible, and the main concern is to make students feel comfortable and secure. Each classroom is unique, and represents its community of learners. In both cases, it is important to notice how each design correlates with the teaching methods and classroom environment: a more restricted in the past and a much more flexible one in the present.

In the traditional classroom design, students´ desks are organized in rows. These rows face the teacher´s desk, which is in front of room. This is a teacher-centered classroom, and it corresponds to traditional teaching paradigm. The students are “passive recipients” in which the teacher deposits information. The teacher relies heavily on lectures, and assessment is usually carried out through quizzes and tests. Finally, this design does not foster social interaction or collaborative learning.

In the nontraditional classroom design, students´ desks are arranged in semi-circle or u shape, which fosters peer interaction. This design allows discussions, group work and collaborative efforts. Audio-visual aids, and multimedia also play an important role in this design. This design is learner-centered and it encourages learners to be active. Lessons are varied, that is, the teacher uses different methods, techniques, and strategies. Assessment can be carried out through experiments, collaborative projects, etc. This design allows students to have a sense of ownership as the lessons are not conducted with them, not at them. 

"I belong in this community!"

6. Types of Comprehension

Comprehension involves memory, cognition, and metacognition. Memory is recalling thoughts or feelings we have experienced beforehand and stored in our minds. Cognition refers to the ability of processing, storing, retrieving and retaining of information. Finally, metacognition is a higher thinking process, which includes self-awareness when making a decision or solving a problem. It could also be defined as “thinking about your thinking”. 

Comprehension involves all these three since it requires using our memory, cognition, and metacognition in order to gain an understanding of something. There are three types of comprehension which can be observed or demonstrated through actions or behaviors:

1. Literal comprehension is “fact-based evidence” of comprehension; for instance, “visual learners benefit from using charts, diagrams, and maps, and other visual aids.”   

2. Applied comprehension is “comparison and contrast comprehension”; it is the result of making a connection to our own previous experiences, or read and heard material. For instance, “reading about VAK learning styles, I have come to realize that I am a visual learner rather than an auditory or kinesthetic one.”

3. Implied comprehension is “inferential comprehension”; that is, achieved through inferences from context or material presented in visual, oral or tactile formats. For instance, “reading about VAK learning styles and Neuro-linguistic Programming, I think people are more successful students when they are well-aware of their predominant sensory preference.”

As teachers, we want our students to comprehend and understand, and not to rely on rote memorization or mechanic acquisition of facts that are soon to be forgotten and represent no use. We must aim at comprehension so that meaningful learning can take place.

5. How Can We Give Effective Feedback to Our Students?

Learning cannot take place without effective feedback. Through it, we can shape successful learners. We give feedback to our students so that they are able to reflect on their performance, and consequently improve it. Feedback provides students insight to whether they have reached the objectives we have set for them or not.

Feedback is much more than grading the qualities of a student´s work. Feedback is a form of communication between teachers and students (oral or written), and thus it needs to be done effectively. For instance, when we give feedback to our students, we must offer input on their strengths and weaknesses, focusing both on their successes and areas for improvement. For this reason, we say that feedback has the power to create reflective learners, that is, learners who reflect upon their progress and establish ways to improve.

Feedback should be aimed at recognizing students´ efforts and helping them progress. It should not, in any moment, affect students’ self-esteem negatively. Therefore, our comments should always be phrased positively. This does not mean we are not going to discuss our students´ weaknesses or aspects of the work that were not done right. Instead, it means that we must be careful with our choice of words and body language – especially when we are giving oral feedback. In addition, we should always avoid comparisons with other students.

“The most powerful single moderator that enhances achievement is feedback."